Greek Mythology Read online

  3. Should Greek gods and goddesses and the associated belief system be termed a religion or was it something else?

  It may seem strange to term a mythological system of belief a religion because of our modern idea of what religion entails, but this is precisely what this belief system was. Religion involves a spiritual belief about a deity or deities and it comes with a system of worship that is usually ritualized. Although the ancient Greek gods and goddesses had lives that took the form of what we might call a soap opera today, the Greek people of ancient times believed in this cast of characters, and the worship of them was a fundamental part of their lives.

  Modern scholars often refer to the myths and legends of the Ancient Greeks as the Ancient Greek religion. Many modern religions are monotheistic so common people often associate pagan ways of life as something other than a religion like a folk belief or shamanism. There certainly were earthy elements in the Greek religion, although they had been overplayed by the supposedly more recent patriarchal elements that were said to come from the invaders from the north during the Dark Ages. Whatever your personal opinion is on the relative merits of ancient Greek belief, it certainly meets the standard of religion.

  4. What is an epithet, and what is the significance of epithets in Ancient Greek religion?

  An epithet is a description that is part of a name; it sometimes follows a name though it may come before. Examples include swift-footed Achilles, the rosy-cheeked Dawn, and Aphrodite, the foam-born. An epithet is essentially an attribute of that person, whether god, hero, or another mortal, but it has a special meaning because the particular attribute is well-known enough to be closely associated with that person.

  Epithets were important because they were often associated with the gods, and in this role, they represented a realm of power and consequently of devotion for the gods. In other words, there were many epithets of Zeus that represented different domains of this god. Zeus, therefore, may have different roles in different places where he was revered. This was especially true of deities of foreign origin, or deities that assumed the identities of other regional deities. Apollo and Aphrodite had many epithets associated with their role in the particular region or city where they were worshipped.

  5. Were all the gods of Ancient Greece Olympians?

  All of the main gods of Ancient Greece were Olympians, although we have been introduced to many other gods that were not. For example, the Titans who preceded the Olympians were not classed as Olympians. Also, there were a number of gods, especially those that were the personifications of things, that were not classed as Olympians. So Eos, goddess of the dawn, and Boreas, the North Wind, would not have been considered Olympians, generally. Also, Hypnos, the god of sleep, or Hygeia, goddess of health, also would not have been considered Olympians. It is even worth debating whether Asclepius, god of medicine, was an Olympian.

  6. Who were the nymphs and why do they appear so frequently in Greek legend?

  Nymphs are essentially the embodied spirits of physical spaces, even if those spaces were changing (like water). They occupied a liminal space between god and mortal. Although they are not properly termed demigods, they had much in common with this particular group. Demigods were essentially the half-mortal children of the gods, and they typically had longer life spans and special accouterments that distinguished them from human beings. Although the same is not true of the naiads, nereids, and others, it is true that these creatures or spirits were believed to basically be immortal when it came to the duration of life, although they could be killed as mortals can.

  Nymph is basically the catch-all term for the spirit characters discussed in this portion of the chapter. Nereids and naiads are types of nymphs. Nymphs were generally depicted (and thought of) as beautiful young girls. They were associated with fertility and fecundity. Many gods and demigods were the children on nymphs, including characters like Achilles. A nymph was the beautiful young girl associated with (usually) a body of water. A nereid was a nymph associated with the sea, while a naiad was usually associated with a discrete aqueous structure, like a fountain. Although there were no cities or temples associated with nymphs, they frequently appeared in myth and legend. Shrines devoted to important local nymphs would have been common in the Greek world.

  7. Was there an element of historicity in Greek myth or was it all made up?

  This is an interesting and important question. Although it may seem at first glance that all of Greek myth and legend was invented, scholars believe that certain characters, even godly ones, might have been real. For example, historians believe that Theseus and Heracles were probably real characters. Theseus was the mythological king of Athens who defeated the Minotaur, while Heracles was the son of Zeus who overcame twelve labors and eventually was made a god.

  Of course, the picture becomes murkier when we examine other characters. This is because it is nearly impossible to prove (or disprove) that a particular character, even a human one, was real or fantasy. The same can be said of Norse mythology. It is not always clear here whether characters were real or fantasy, especially as many of the sagas included people that actually lived, such as attested kings of Denmark and Norway. Because the Ancient Greeks lived so long ago, it is hard to find evidence that this person lived or did not. Suffice it to say, it is safe to assume that some ancient kings and heroes of myth, such as Menelaus and Agamemnon of the Trojan War, might have lived, while others like Achilles or Hector might have been created by storytellers.

  8. What about the Trojan War? Was that an actual historic event?

  This is a perfect caveat to a discussion about the Trojan War. As we have examined so far, it is difficult to tell who in myth lived or did not, especially when it comes to human characters where we know that they actually might have lived. The Trojan War period is a popular time to discuss when it comes to historicity because archaeologists have discovered finds from Mycenae and Troy from about the same time. Archaeologists have even labeled certain finds as belonging to Agamemnon or Priam based on their assumptions about the real identity of buried kings, their treasures, and so on.

  If we leave aside the characters and talk about the Trojan War as an event, historians do believe that a war was fought at the site of Troy, or Ilium. Archaeologists have found more than ten different historical cities at the site of Troy; meaning that cities were successively destroyed and abandoned and subsequently built over. There is a large city at the site from the 12th century BC, about the same time as another major city at Mycenae, that appears to have been destroyed in that century, which led the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann to believe that he had not only found Troy but that he had proved that the Trojan War actually occurred.

  9. Is it true that some of the Greek gods originated outside of Greece?

  The origin of this god or that is an interesting subject to explore because it allows one to get a real sense of cultural exchange as it occurs over time. Only the most isolated societies do not adopt some features of the religions of their neighbors. A major exception, of course, is the Egyptians who were so far ahead of anyone around them that they had no peers from whom to borrow deities or religious practices.

  But the Greeks certainly adopted gods from other peoples during their history. First of all, it is believed that the original inhabitants of Greece worshipped gods who were primarily female. These were allegedly deities associated with fertility, the home, and peace. Several waves of invaders brought other gods - so-called sky gods like Zeus. Even later, exposure to foreign peoples brought to the Greeks gods like Aphrodite, Dionysus, and others. It has even suggested that some gods of Ancient Greece may have originally been female and were changed later into male deities.

  10. Why is it important to understand the history of Ancient Greece when discussing mythology?

  Learning about the history of Ancient Greece when studying mythology allows you to develop a context for the story that mythology entails. Mythologies provide valuable information about the characteristics
of a people, and examining history as well allows one to complete the picture. For example, the existence of male and female gods in Olympus with slightly different roles does seem to support the idea that waves of invasions changed the character of the Ancient Greek religion from having matriarchal elements to being overwhelmingly patriarchal. So the conflict between Zeus and Hera can actually be interpreted as representing a tension between a new patriarchal system and an older matriarchal one.

  11. Who were the Dorians and why were they important to the Greek story?

  The Dorians were invaders who came from the North during the period in Greek history known as the Dark Ages. They were one of the three major groups of Greeks during the Classical period along with the Ionians and the Aeolians. These groups spoke different dialects of Greek and had cultural practices that were specific to them. The legacy of Dorian invasion was apparent in later Greece, especially in Sparta where the Dorian invaders ruled over the conquered natives. Indeed, the successive invasions from the north may have contributed to the relative backwardness of decline associated with the Dark Ages period.

  12. Where did the Greeks come from?

  Evidence suggests that the Ancient Greeks were descended from several peoples who lived in the area of modern-day Greece at different times. The earliest inhabitants of Greece may have been similar to the early inhabitants of other areas of the Northern Mediterranean Sea, such as Italy and Turkey. These people are sometimes referred to as Pelasgians, and they may be the same as the so-called Sea Peoples who are attested in other sources. These people would have been assimilated or conquered by successive waves of people.

  It is not clear when the first wave of conquerors came, but they likely came sometime before the Mycenaean and Trojan War period, so the 13th - 12th centuries BC. Afterward, Greece fell into a Dark Age where there were more invasions. It seems that the conquerors adopted the Greek spoken language because there is no evidence for major language differences across Ancient Greece. That being said, there was evidence for dialects or regional languages (much like the regional languages of Spain and Italy), which suggests waves of people coming from different places or, at the very least, divergence over time. In short, the Greeks were at least partially descended from very early native inhabitants of the peninsula followed by others who came later and generally assimilated with the original inhabitants. There is evidence for this picture in the puzzle piece picture of gods (patriarchal and matriarchal) in Greek myth and legend.

  13. Was Athena an important goddess in the Greek world, or was she only important because of her association with the city of Athens?

  One of the fascinating things about Greek gods and goddesses is that they had regional affiliations. Certain gods and goddesses had cities that were sacred to them and which they served as the protectors of. Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, a city which had been named after her. This patron status meant that the main temple of the city was devoted to that god or goddess, and it would have been in a prominent place in town, usually the acropolis.

  In the case of Athena, she does seem to be an important goddess in the Greek world, but her status was certainly improved by the prominence of Athens. Athens’s place as the largest and most important Greek city meant that they could embellish Athena’s temple, the Parthenon until it became one of the largest in the Greek world. The cult of Athena would also be spread by means of propaganda in the form of statues and other artistic wares. Even drama was a way to promote the status of one god vis a vis another.

  14. Is Zeus basically the equivalent of Odin in Norse myth?

  Patriarchal societies generally have a sky god who is often also the king of the gods. This was true of the Ancient Greeks as well as the Norse. So, in short, yes, Odin is basically the Norse equivalent of Zeus. Odin was called All-Father in Norse tradition, and he basically modeled the role that the ideal male was meant to play in his community. Therefore, it was important in patriarchal societies for the gods and their relationship with one another to serve as a model for how relationships should be in society. Just like Odin, Zeus was the king of his castle, although Zeus’s castle was called Mount Olympus while Odin’s was known as Asgard.

  15. Why is Greek mythology less popular in modern media than Norse characters like Thor?

  Well, it is not necessarily true that Greek mythological characters are less popular or less influential than Norse ones. Norse mythology has been promoted recently because a particular character (Thor) has been associated with a well-liked and very popular franchise. That being said, Ancient Greek characters also have a prominent place both in media and literature. In particular, Heracles (or Hercules as he was known in Rome) has been a popular character in film since films became popular. Movies about this character have been made right up through to the present.

  Even relatively recent films like Clash of the Titans are based on the Greek myth. This film is essentially the story of Perseus’s battle against the gorgon Medusa and other, which were important stories in Ancient Greece. These stories are often highly dramatized but still reflect both the role of gods in the society and also the role of the hero. As modern society is constructed differently, both the religious element and the hero element have lost their essential meaning and basically become relegated to the realm of fantasy.

  16. What impact has the Ancient Greek religion had on life and society today?

  The Ancient Greeks were the first to produce drama as we know it. The dramas of the Greeks displayed the characters of Greek myth and their interaction with the gods. The common thread in Greek drama was often hubris, that is, pride against the gods. An oracle would proclaim a future ordained by the gods and the proud mortal would do everything they could to circumvent it. In the end, their attempts to prevent the future the oracle declared served only to create it. This is seen not only in Oedipus but in other Greek dramas.

  Another area of Greek influence today is in the realm of philosophy. Greek philosophers laid the groundwork for the philosophy of today. They developed the method of instructing students and even established the first schools of philosophy. Although Ancient Greek philosophy was not as closely tied to myth and legend as the drama was, it was the world of myth and superstition that created the first philosophers and poets: men who wanted to break away from a world that they saw as mired in ignorance and backwardness.

  17. Is Greek mythology the same as Roman mythology?

  Most of the gods and other characters of Roman mythology come from the Greeks. The Romans would have been exposed to Greek myths and other aspects of Greek culture from about the 6th or 7th century BC onward. It was at this time that the Greeks began establishing colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily. Greece had an enormous impact on the Romans, and religion is only the most obvious example. That being said, the Romans did not get all of their religion from the Greeks.

  Indeed, we can talk about Roman religion in much the same way that we can talk about Greek religion. Roman religion was not peripheral to Roman life just as Greek religion was not peripheral to Greek life. Importantly, the Romans worshipped gods that they did not derive from the Greeks. Whether these gods were derived from the Etruscans or they were native to the Romans themselves is a question that is still up for debate. Some of the Roman gods were clearly of a very ancient origin. They were often grouped together in large groups, and they might be faceless or lacking a distinct identity as individuals. Examples of grouped Roman gods include the Lares. The Romans also engaged in a form of ancestor worship.

  18. How did Greek myth and legend spread to Rome?

  Greek myth and legend spread to Rome through contact between the Greeks and Romans. This contact occurred due to the close proximity of Greek colonies to the burgeoning Rome. Some of these cities are still existing today, such as Naples and Taranto in Southern Italy, and Syracuse on Sicily. Roman merchants and other travelers would have been exposed to not only Greek myths about gods and heroes, but Greek dramas, Greek art, and Greek historic tradition. Alth
ough these latter two categories were not explicitly mythological, they would have helped to reinforce the myths and legends that the Romans had already begun to receive from the Greeks.

  19. Where are the best-preserved Greek temples located?

  There are many examples of temples in modern-day Greece. For example, the Parthenon, Theseum, Erechtheum, and other temples in Athens have been preserved and are frequently visited by tourists. There are also other sites like Corinth and Rhodes were temple complexes remain to this day. With that said, some of the greatest examples of Greek temples and other Greek architecture actually exists outside of modern-day Greece. There are numerous sites in Turkey, such as Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Priene, and others, where Greco-Roman remains, are visible. Arguably the best-preserved temple sites are located in Italy, where numerous temples can be found.

  20. Are the depictions of Greek gods in movies like Clash of the Titans and the Immortals accurate or is it all just invented for dramatic effect?

  It is difficult for us today to really know how the Greeks perceived their gods though we can guess. Greek drama, art, and other media give us an idea of how the Greeks perceived their gods both physically and intellectually. The Greeks seemed to view their gods as being quarrelsome like people and sometimes fickle, but because they were powerful and, frankly, gods, they had to be obeyed or those who did not risk suffering the consequences. In movies like Clash of the Titans Greek gods are portrayed much like they are in art. They also have the fickleness and obsession with humans that works of drama and literature seem to suggest. So, in short, the movies seem to do a pretty good job at displaying the gods as the Greeks would have seen them, even if the meaning these gods would have to people today is very different.